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Conflict in an organization is a universal phenomenon, and effective conflict management plays an important role in organizational survival and development. Based on a review of the literature, the article provides an overview of the theory of conflict management strategies and comments thereon, and concludes with possible directions for future research on conflict management strategies。
Keyword
Conflict; conflict management; conflict management strategy
Introduction
For almost a century, there have been three different views on the perception of organizational conflicts, namely, the traditional views of conflicts, the views of interpersonal relations and the views of interaction. The traditional view of conflict is that conflicts are negative, that they have a negative impact on the organization and should therefore be avoided as far as possible, and that managers have a responsibility to eliminate conflicts in the organization. The human relationship view is that conflicts are inherent and inevitable in all organizations, that they should be accepted and that they can benefit organizations. What is now generally accepted is the dialectic of the conflict — the interactive perspective. According to that view, an organization that is too harmonious, peaceful and cooperative can easily express the need for change in the form of static, apathy and retardation, so that the task of leadership is to sustain moderate conflicts. When there are too many intra-organizational conflicts, efforts should be made to eliminate them, and when there are too few intra-organizational conflicts, conflicts should be moderately stimulated by various means in order to sustain the vitality of the organization. Despite the differences in the perception of conflict among the three above-mentioned views, it is common that conflict in an organization is a widespread phenomenon and should be managed. Conflict management is a process and a systematic model. The whole process involves four stages of conflict diagnosis, conflict intervention, conflict management effectiveness and feedback on conflict outcomes. Conflict management strategies are the behavioural tendencies of both parties to a conflict in the face of conflict. Conflict management strategies will be applied during the intervention phase of a conflict, and the choice and application of conflict management strategies are key to determining the effectiveness of conflict management。
As far as the literature on conflicts is concerned, the relevant research on conflict management strategies is a topic that most expert scholars are keen to explore. Looking at the theoretical community's research, we can broadly divide it into two main lines: first, a strategic study limited to the two parties to the conflict, which is used in the face of the conflict; and, secondly, a strategic exploration of the two parties to the conflict by the “third person” who is outside the parties。
Based on a summary of previous research findings, the author has refined and evaluated previous research on conflict management strategy models and suggested possible directions for future research。
Ii. Conflict management strategy for the major of conflict
1. 2d conflict management strategy model
For the first time, the first and most influential experts in research in the field of conflict management strategies were blake and mouton, who shifted the study of conflict from a one-dimensional space (i. E., a conflict divided into competitive or cooperative conflicts)。
In 1964, blake and mouton first proposed a classification model for dealing with interpersonal conflicts. They define cross-references as “careful people”, and vertical coordinates as “interested in production”, distinguishing five conflict management strategies: problem resolution. I'm not sure what i'm talking about。
The model was further explained by the american behavioural scientist thomas. In his view, there were at least two possible responses to conflict: caring for oneself and caring for others. In it, “care for oneself” indicates the degree of arbitrariness in the pursuit of personal interests; “care for others” indicates the degree of cooperation in the pursuit of personal interests. So there are five different interpersonal conflict management strategies。
Later, rahim, wall and canister, using concepts similar to blake, mouton and thomas, redefined cross- and vertical coordinates and changed the names of the five management strategies, but remained largely outside the two-dimensional research paradigm (see table 1)。
In addition to the above studies on the definition of dimensions and the description of various management approaches, many expert scholars have studied the effectiveness of five specific management strategies and the preferences of the subjects of the conflict。
The extent to which these five strategies have been effective was investigated by burke (1970), who found that the use of cooperative strategies has often been effective in resolving conflict problems; that enforcement strategies have been ineffective; and that avoidance strategies and restraint have generally been used with little or no effect. By investigating the relationship between appropriate conflict strategies and effects, canary & spitzberg and others have found that strategies of integration or cooperation are often considered effective, but not always; that competition or distributive strategies are considered to be medium-efficiency; and that avoidance is considered neither effective nor appropriate。
While some expert scholars consider cooperation or problem-solving approaches to be the most appropriate way to deal with conflicts, others have also pointed out that the ability to deal effectively with conflicts is more dependent on the circumstances. Generally speaking, cooperation and a certain degree of compromise are appropriate for dealing with strategic issues. The rest can be used to address strategic or routine issues。
In terms of strategic preferences for the subjects of conflict, rahim (1983) has found that gender differences affect behavioural strategies, that men prefer competitive strategies and that women prefer other strategies. In conflicts at the upper and lower levels, superiors tend to force or dominate, while subordinates prefer to avoid or compromise (howatg&londonm, 1980)。
By comparing the conflict-resolution styles of chinese and united states managers, jehn and weldon (1995) found that chinese managers prefer passive conflict-management styles, such as avoidance, while united states managers prefer proactive problem-solving styles that focus directly and quickly on mission-related conflicts。
In addition to the research by researchers from a western perspective, many scholars have studied conflict management strategies from a chinese cultural perspective. Such as knutson & v. R. Smith (2002), chen & liu (2002), hwang (2002), tjosvold (2001). Specifically, in predicting how conflicts are dealt with in chinese society, hwang proposes a conflict resolution model combining basic chinese cultural values such as relations (guanxi), face (face), inter-personal harmony (inter-personharmony) and favour (favoor). In the model, hwang proposes two dimensions of conflict management: one dimension is the pursuit or abandonment of personal objectives; the other dimension is the maintenance or neglect of interpersonal harmony. He believed that if a person chose to give up interpersonal harmony, he or she would choose the face-to-face side and if a person chose to maintain interpersonal harmony, he or she would choose to tolerate the other side. In conjunction with thomas ' two-dimensional model, guo zhongyang (2000) offers a model of success and negative decision-making that takes into account the two sides to the conflict. It contains a cross-axis showing its own results and a vertical axis indicating the results of others. On that basis, he proposed four different management strategies that might be available: negative and negative, winning and losing, balanced and winning。
In a study by liu and chen (2002) on conflict management strategies for state-owned enterprises in china, according to frequency, the five strategies applied by the testees were ranked as cooperation, coercion, compromise, restraint and evasion. In its master's thesis, the royal pioneer (2005), through a questionnaire analysis of 140 enterprises in sichuan province, concluded that in two conflict situations, chinese executives preferred cooperation, and that in the event of emotional disputes between individuals in the course of discussions, mediation by their superiors and concessions by both sides might be sought if integration failed to achieve its purpose。
2. 3d conflict management strategy model
The above-mentioned research on conflict management strategy models was carried out in a two-dimensional mindset, with scholars having exceeded two dimensions in recent years and expanded to multidimensional dimensions. Nicola (1993) is a representative. He proposed a three-dimensional model that would close his own point of view (attention toone'sownviewpoint), concern to others' side'sviewpoint, and rational destruction (nationaldis-option). In this model, the first two dimensions reflect the extent to which an individual views or discusses the issue from two opposite perspectives, while the third dimension describes the emotional factors of the individual in the process of looking at or discussing the issue, and, further, the role of the emotional factor in the model is well distinguished from the emotional aspect. From this point of view, the model has some progressive significance. 3. Developmental context for research on conflict-related conflict management strategies
From the above-mentioned study of conflict management strategies, it can be seen that the perspective of previous human research is primarily based on the subject of conflict, and from this perspective it is moving in two directions: first, the extension of the two-dimensional model to the multi-dimensional model; and second, the study of the two-dimensional definition and specific management strategies under the two-dimensional research paradigm. In terms of the latter direction, current research shows two trends: on the one hand, expert scholars focus on modelling conflict management strategies for people in different cultural contexts; on the other hand, researchers focus on the selection of conflict management strategies based on gender differences, cultural differences, etc., under given models, as well as on the selection of strategies at a particular level (e. G., senior management teams, project teams)。
Introduction of “third-party” conflict management strategies
Whether it is a one-dimensional model, a two-dimensional model or a multidimensional model to be further explored, they focus on both sides of the conflict. However, when the parties to the conflict were unable to resolve it effectively, third parties would be introduced. As in the case of j. N. Martinand nakayama, in their study of cross-cultural conflict exchanges, they added a “arbitration or indirect” approach to the identification of several types of management and strategies that people use to respond to situations of interpersonal conflict. It is clear that the operation of this “arbitration or indirect” approach is a “third party” that is separated from the subject of the conflict。
However, the introduction of third parties also requires conditions. The american scholar moore (1996) once listed a condition requiring a third-party intermediary: (1) tension between the parties has prevented the resolution of the problem; (2) poor communication; (3) misunderstandings or stereotypes behind an effective exchange have been hidden; (4) repeated denials (anger, verbal abuse, constant blame, etc.) have created obstacles between the parties; (5) the importance of the issue, serious inconsistencies in data collection or evaluation, etc.; (6) substantial or perceived incompatible interests exist between the parties and cannot be reconciled; and (7) unnecessary (but both parties to the conflict feel necessary) differences in values have created a gap between them。
In general, when third parties are introduced, they play one of the following three roles: mediator/facilitator, coordinator or arbitrator. In contrast, third parties use two main methods of conflict resolution: mediation and arbitration. The mediation “initially led to a degree of compromise under conditions of impudence on the part of both parties, and then to a speedy and effective settlement of the conflict” (rubin, 1980). Arbitration means that the parties voluntarily refer disputes that arise to a third party for a mutually binding decision based on facts and law。
At the same time, rubin pointed out that while the introduction of third parties was conducive to conflict resolution, there were also disadvantages: (1) third parties might interrupt a conflict resolution process that had already been initiated; (2) third parties tended to add their own interests, judgments, interests, etc. To the conflict; and (3) the introduction of third parties might rekindle a conflict that had gradually cooled down as a result of third-party mediation. Therefore, the aim of third parties should be to slowly inculcate a cooperative approach to the resolution of the conflict, rather than to deal with the conflict quickly (deutsch, 1990)。
Projections of future research directions
1. The multi-dimensional model of conflict management strategies needs further study and exploration
Although lictre nicotera presented a three-dimensional model that distinguished the emotional elements of the problem, the dimensions of the model remained the basis of conflict between the parties. If scholars combine “third-party” ideas to expand the dimensions of the model beyond those of the parties to the conflict, the study of the dimensions of the model will be increasingly extensive。
2. Focus on the impact of information technology on conflict management strategies
With the spread of networks and computers, people are becoming more flexible in dealing with issues, and parties to conflicts are not necessarily face-to-face and such conflicts are not easily observed or detected. Will the models of conflict management strategies change as a result of the use of networks and computer technology? Are the preferences of conflict subjects to choose conflict management strategies influenced by networks and computer technology。
3. Organization of a comparative study of conflict management strategies at different levels within the organization
In the two-dimensional model, current scholars have focused on empirical evidence to examine conflict management strategies at one level of the enterprise (e. G., senior management teams) and on the preferences and impact factors of this particular level of personnel for management strategies, but few have compared conflict management strategies at different levels within the organization. For example, the conflict management strategies and strategic preferences of senior management teams within the organization, middle management teams and grass-roots staff may differ depending on the composition of the team at different levels, the size of the team and the position of team members in the organization. By means of comparative research, scholars can be targeted at organizations at different levels of team management。
4. Comparative study of conflict management strategies of people in different cultural contexts
The role of culture in conflict management is becoming increasingly evident with the emergence and rise of transnational business management. Cross-cultural conflict management has become one of the topical topics of current research. As far as conflict management strategies are concerned, research is being conducted on the respective conflict management strategies of people in different cultural contexts; there are studies on how managers and staff from different cultural contexts can respond to and deal with conflicts. A study of conflict management strategies of people in different cultural contexts will provide important policy recommendations for cross-cultural enterprise conflict management and its integration pathways。
